HEALTH, NEWS

Study:  Corn-related diets Linked to Longevity and eye health.

Mr. Gaye TheVoice

Prof. Raphael Nyarkotey Obu

There is a controversy as to whether corn is a vegetable or a whole grain.   Whole corn kernels are loaded with good nutrients. For instance, organic corn is a vitamin C food, magnesium-rich food, and contains certain B vitamins and potassium. It also supplies a good dose of two antioxidants linked to eye and skin health: zeaxanthin and lutein. Eating fresh corn on the cob also provides a significant amount of the daily dietary fiber content, along with some complex carbohydrates that are a good energy source.

To studies, GMO corn doesn’t contain the same level of beneficial vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants that the organic variety has.  So this study is based on the scientific benefits derived from organic or natural corn.

Corn (scientific name Zea mays), called maize in Spanish, has been a staple ingredient in South, Central, and North America for thousands of years. Corn can have diverse types, including red, pink, black, purple, multicolored, and blue.

Nutrition Facts

One large ear (about 118 grams) of boiled sweet yellow corn contains roughly:

  • 127 calories
  • 29.6 grams carbohydrates
  • 3.9 grams protein
  • 1.5 grams fat
  • 3.3 grams fiber
  • 0.3 milligrams thiamine (17 percent Daily Value (DV)
  • 54.3 micrograms folate (14 percent DV)
  • 7.3 milligrams vitamin C (12 percent DV)
  • 1.9 milligrams niacin (10 percent DV)
  • 1 milligram pantothenic acid (10 percent DV)
  • 88.5 milligrams phosphorus (9 percent DV)
  • 0.2 milligrams manganese (9 percent DV)
  • 30.7 milligrams magnesium (8 percent DV)
  • 250 milligrams potassium (7 percent DV)
  • 310 international units vitamin A (6 percent DV)
  • 0.1 milligrams riboflavin (5 percent DV)
  • 0.7 milligrams zinc (5 percent DV)
  • 0.1 milligrams vitamin B6 (4 percent DV)
  • 0.5 milligrams iron (3 percent DV)
  • 0.1 milligrams copper (3 percent DV)

Also, one large contains some vitamin E, vitamin K, choline, calcium, selenium, omega-3, and omega-6.

Carbs

Like all cereal grains, corn is primarily composed of carbs. Nuss and Tanumihardjo(2010) found that starch is its main carb, comprising 28–80% of its dry weight. Corn also provides small amounts of sugar (1–3%). The USDA Food Composition Databases also found that Sweet corn, or sugar corn, is a special, low-starch variety with higher sugar content, at 18% of the dry weight. Most of the sugar is sucrose.  The University of Sydney study on the glycemic index also found that though there is sugar in sweet corn, it is not a high-glycemic food, ranking low or medium on the glycemic index (GI).  The GI is a measure of how quickly carbs are digested. Foods that rank high on this index may cause an unhealthy spike in blood sugar.

Fiber

Corn contains a fair amount of fiber. The Department of Health and Human Services and USDA Food Composition Databases found that one medium bag (112 grams) of cinema popcorn boasts approximately 16 grams of fiber. This amount to  42% and 64% of the Daily Value (DV) for men and women, respectively.  Though the fiber content of diverse types of corn varies, it’s normally around 9–15% of the dry weight. The main fibers in corn are insoluble ones, such as hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin.

Protein

Corn is clothed with protein. One study by Panzeri et al.(2009) found that the protein content in corn depends on the type and could range from 10–15%. Guo et al.(2013) found that zeins are the most available protein in corn,  about 44–79%.

However, Guo et al.(2013) also found that the protein quality of zeins is poor because they lack some essential amino acids.   Lawton, J(2002) further explained that Zeins is also employed in many commercial situations,  for instance, in the production of adhesives, inks, and coatings for pills, candy, and nuts.

Corn oil

Panzeri et al.(2013) found that the fat content of corn ranges from 5–6%, making it a low-fat food.  This notwithstanding,  corn germ, an abundant side-product of corn milling, is rich in fat and used to make corn oil, which is a common cooking product.

A previous study by Jellum, MD(1970) found that refined corn oil is mainly composed of linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, while monounsaturated and saturated fats make up the rest.

Two studies (Dupont et al. 1990; Maki et al. 2015) also found that corn has significant amounts of vitamin E, ubiquinone (Q10), and phytosterols, increasing its shelf life and decreasing cholesterol levels.  

Sweet corn

Sweet corn boast several vitamins, including:

  • Pantothenic acid. Also called vitamin B5, this acid is found to some extent in nearly all foods. Thus, deficiency is rare.
  • Folate.  One study by Fekete et al.( 2012) also found that vitamin B9 or folic acid, folate is an essential nutrient, especially important during pregnancy.
  • Vitamin B6. B6 is a class of related vitamins, the most common of which is pyridoxine. It serves various functions in the body.
  • Niacin.  One study by Sefa-Dedeh et al.(2004) reported that vitamin B3 and niacin in corn are not well absorbed.  To improve its bioavailability, one can adopt cooking corn with lime.
  • Potassium.  One study by  (Whelton and  He, 2014), reported that potassium is important for blood pressure control and could improve heart health.

Other plant ingredients

Corn contains several bioactive plant compounds, some of which may boost our health. One study by Adom and Liu (2002) found that  corn boasts higher amounts of antioxidants than numerous other common cereal grains:

  • Ferulic acid.  Two studies (Adom and Liu, 2002; Pozo-Insfran et. 2006) reported that ferulic acid is one of the main polyphenol antioxidants in corn, which contains higher amounts of it than other cereal grains like wheat, oats, and rice.
  • Anthocyanins. Two studies (Pozo-Insfran et. 2006; Pedreschi and Cisneros-Zevallos, 2007)  found that These antioxidant pigments are responsible for the color of blue, purple, and red corn.
  • Zeaxanthin. Two studies ( Abdel-Aal et al. 2013; Kean et al. 2008) reported this compound in corn has been attributed to corn’s scientific name (Zea mays), zeaxanthin is one of the most common plant carotenoids. In humans, it has been linked to improved eye health.
  • Lutein. Two studies ( Abdel-Aal et al. 2013; Kean et al. 2008) reported that lutein is one of the main carotenoids in corn. lutein acts as an antioxidant, protecting our eyes from oxidative damage produced by blue light. 
  • Phytic acid.  Schlemmer et al.(2009) found that this antioxidant could impair our absorption of dietary minerals, such as zinc and iron.

Corn, Science

Regular whole-grain intake may have several health benefits.

Corn-related diets Linked to Longevity and Overall Health

Today, levels of obesity, hypertension, and insulin resistance are high among Ghanaians. Recently, a report has it that about 35% of Ghanaians are hypertensive. Finding solutions to the raising causes of hypertension and diabetes appears to be in our kitchen.  For instance, one study by  Kwon et al.( 2007) found that changes in dietary patterns of these populations toward consuming more high-calorie foods, sugar, refined grain flour, and sweetened beverages have resulted in far more health risks than their previous diet based primarily on corn, legumes, rice, and vegetables. This means that to avert the rising cases of hypertension and others, we have to shift from the reliance on the western diet and adopt our traditional diet made from corn related such as banku, Kenkey, Akple, etc.  The researchers believe that a return to traditional dietary patterns can help reduce these disease problems because of a better balance of calories and beneficial nutrients. They note that staple crops like corn and legumes have antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anti-hypertension potential. These foods also provide certain protective phenolic phytochemicals that are beneficial for heart health, reversing hypertension as a natural remedy for high blood pressure, and controlling blood sugar levels.

Eye Health

Three studies( Abdel-Aal et al. 2013;  Moeller et al. 2000; Carpentier et al. 2009) found that dietary consumption of antioxidants, especially carotenoids like zeaxanthin and lutein, could boost eye health.

Three studies( Kean et al. 2008; Hu et al. 2011; Maiani et al. 2009) found that Lutein and zeaxanthin are the major carotenoids in corn,  which are linked up to about 70% of the total carotenoid content. Though, their levels are low in white corn. The colored corn is ideal for those with eye problems and looking for eye-health foods.

Three studies(  Bone et al. 1997;  Bone et al. 2000; Whitehead et al. 2006) also note that lutein and zeaxanthin are normally called macular pigments, these compounds exist in our retina, the light-sensitive inner surface of our eye, where they protect against oxidative damage caused by blue light. Additionally, three studies( Karppi et al. 2012; Dherani et al. 2008;  Delcourt et al. 2006) found that high levels of these carotenoids in our blood are strongly linked to a decreased risk of both macular degeneration and cataracts.

Three observational studies( Vu et al. 2006;  Seddon et al. 1994; Cho et al. 2008)found that high dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin may be protective, but not all studies agreed with this proposition.

However, one old study by Seddon et al. (1994) in 356 middle-aged and older adults found a 43% reduction in the risk of macular degeneration in those with the highest intake of carotenoids, especially lutein and zeaxanthin, compared to those with the lowest intake.  This means eating corn-related diets should be taken seriously. Additionally, for those with eye issues, your diet is corn related.

Prevents diverticular disease

Diverticular disease (diverticulosis) is a condition characterized by pouches in the walls of your colon. The main symptoms are cramps, flatulence, bloating, and — less often — bleeding and infection.

In one study by Jacobs. O( 2007) explained that Popcorn and other high-fiber foods were once believed to trigger this condition. This assertion was further debunked in one 18-year study by Strate et al. (2008)  on 47,228 men which found that popcorn may protect against diverticular disease. Men who ate the most popcorn were 28% less likely to develop diverticular disease than those with the lowest intake.  The study further noted that Corn, especially, may protect against specific digestive issues.

Finally, as a fiber diet, three studies(Lattimer and  Haub, 2010; Anderson et al. 2009; Jacqueline and Floch, 2007) found that the more we eat a dietary fiber diet, the more we have a lower risk of developing numerous diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and some cancers. Additionally, a fiber diet aids healthy digestion and supports gut health.

Corn, weight

Levy, J (2019)  article explained that based on what we see from populations who eat a lot of unprocessed corn, it shouldn’t.  corn is low in calories and provides nutrients. A large ear only has about 127 calories, making it a reasonable addition to a healthy meal. She added: “In fact, this is less than most grains and is roughly equivalent to eating a nutritious banana, except the corn has much less sugar and more protein and fiber. 

Corn, diabetes

Diabetics may need to limit their starchy carb intake, including corn. Though the studies on corn and blood sugar have been mixed. The added advantage is that Corn is high in starch, which is a type of complex carbohydrate that supports steady energy levels. This is different from refined carbohydrates, which destroy us of energy and aren’t filling for long, foods high in starch and fiber are beneficial for controlling blood sugar levels because the fiber slows down the rate at which glucose (sugar) is released into the bloodstream. Aside from supplying fiber, it also has a decent amount of protein for a vegetable. Fiber and protein together help fill us up better than carbohydrates alone because they stabilize the passage of food through the digestive tract and help prevent drastic blood sugar fluctuations. Plus, protein foods have a list of benefits.  For instance, one study by Li et al.(2019) found that corn contains peptides that have been found to exhibit antihypertensive, hepatoprotective, anti-obesity, antimicrobial, antioxidative, and mineral-binding effects.

One study by Tay et al (2015) found that low-carb diets are more effective at managing diabetes.  The study used 115 adults with obesity and type 2 diabetes and found that eating a diet with only 14% of calories coming from carbs resulted in more stable blood sugars and a reduced medication need compared to getting 53% of the daily calories from carbs.  Levy, J(2019) asserts that eating fewer other corn products, especially high-fructose corn syrup, may help prevent diabetes. For instance, one study by Goran et al.(2013)  found that the prevalence of diabetes was 20% higher in countries with easier access to high-fructose corn syrup, compared to areas where the syrup was not readily available.

An earlier 24-year  study by Bertoia et al. (2015) from Harvard in 133,468 adults found that each additional daily serving of corn was associated with a 2-pound (0.9-kg) weight gain per 4-year interval. Potatoes, peas, and other starchy vegetables did not contribute to as much weight gain.  Though studies have been mixed here. Corn can spike your blood sugar and may contribute to weight gain when consumed in excess. Individuals who have diabetes or are trying to lose weight may want to limit their intake. They might also reduce their intake of corn-related Ghanaian diet specifically  Banku. For instance, one Ghanaian study by Eli‐Cophie et al. (2017) found that banku has a glycemic of 73 and kenkey is 41. This means though kenkey is a corn-derived food, it is good for consumption by diabetics.  Banku on the hand though derived from corn related is too high on the glycemic index. However, diabetics should just watch the size of banku they eat. This will also help them to derive numerous benefits from corn.

Corn, downsides

Corn is generally considered safe. However, some concerns exist. This article was based on natural corn. There are concerns about GMO-related corn. For instance, one study by Vendômois et al.(2009) revealed that when mice were fed three different strains of GMO corn, they experienced negative reactions in their kidneys, livers, and detoxifying organs. The GMO consumption also had noticeable effects on their heart function, adrenal glands, spleens, and haematopoietic systems, all of which were considered a direct result of metabolic changes due to the GMO seed intake and signs of “hepatorenal toxicity,” according to the researchers. This common crop is also commonly used to make a genetically modified oil that is a strong inflammatory and highly likely to become rancid (or “toxic”) when used in cooking. Because corn oil contains delicate fatty acids that are highly susceptible to heat and light, there’s a good chance that most of the bottled corn oil sitting on grocery store shelves has already gone bad(Levy, J, 2019).

GMO corn is used to make dozens of different ingredients added to packaged, processed foods. It is advisable that when purchasing any food product, always read the entire food label to make sure the product is safe and generally free from anything you can’t pronounce. Also, remember that food manufacturers change ingredients in packaged foods all the time as well as preparation methods, so even things you wouldn’t suspect have GMO ingredients in them still might, levy advised.

Additionally, per the Live Corn Free website, things to check for on package ingredient labels include citric acid, confectioner’s sugar, corn flour, caramel flavor, corn fructose, corn meal, corn oil, corn syrup, dextrin and dextrose, fructose, lactic acid, malt, malodextrin, mono- and diglycerides, monosodium glutamate, and sorbitol. It is thus advisable to shop for real whole foods.

There is also concern about high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). HFCS is a fructose-glucose liquid sweetener alternative to sucrose (common table sugar). It’s completely man-made, and highly processed, and was first introduced to the food and beverage industry in the 1970s as a cheap way to sweeten processed foods.

It is established that calorie-for-calorie, HFCS  might be better as compared to regular organic sugar, it is loaded with a type of sugar called fructose, which could have different effects on the body. Results have been mixed with debates on HFCS, fructose, or sucrose and increased risk of heart disease, metabolic syndrome, or fatty infiltration of the liver or muscle. One study by Rippe and Angelopoulos(2013) provides an inconclusive result on this important subject as to whether or not HFCS causes more weight gain than regular white sugar. Though, we know that high-sugar diets of any kind raise the risk of poor health, obesity, and various diseases(Levy, J, 2019). This notwithstanding, one study by Goncalves et al.(2019) found that  HFCS could aid tumor growth and size, leading to concerns about cancer risk.

Antinutrients in corn

Like all cereal grains, whole-grain corn contains phytic acid (phytate).  Schlemmer et al.(2009)  found that Phytic acid impairs your absorption of dietary minerals, such as iron and zinc, from the same meal.

While usually not a problem for people who follow a well-balanced diet, it may be a serious concern in developing countries where cereal grains and legumes are stapled foods.

This notwithstanding, three studies( Schlemmer et al. 2009;  Centeno et al. 2011; Leenhardt et al. 2005) found that soaking, sprouting, and fermenting corn can reduce phytic acid levels substantially.  This is why Akple could be dangerous as it doesn’t go through these procedures.  Once the corn is dried, it goes straight for milling and is used for preparing Akple.

Mycotoxins

Some cereal grains and legumes are susceptible to contamination by fungi. Two studies (Bennett and Klich, 2003; Woloshuk and  Won-Bo Shim, 2012) found that fungi produce various toxins, known as mycotoxins, that are considered significant health concerns.  The main classes of mycotoxins in corn are fumonisins, aflatoxins, and trichothecenes. Fumonisins are particularly noteworthy.  Another study by Waśkiewicz et al. (2012) reported that aflatoxins are found in stored cereals worldwide, but adverse health effects have mostly been linked to the consumption of corn and corn products — especially among people who depend on corn as their main dietary staple. Four studies(Wang et al. 2015; Missmer et al. 2006; Waes et al. 2005; Waes et al. 2009) also found too much consumption of contaminated corn is a suspected risk factor for cancer and neural tube defects, which are common birth defects that may result in disability or death. One old observational study by Rensburg et al.(1985) in South Africa found that regular consumption of cornmeal could increase the risk of cancer in the esophagus, the tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach.

Lewis et al (2005) study also found that mycotoxins in corn may also have adverse effects. 125 people died in Kenya from aflatoxin poisoning after eating homegrown corn that had been improperly stored. Effective preventive strategies may include fungicides and proper drying techniques. In most developed countries, food safety authorities monitor the levels of mycotoxins in foods on the market, with food production and storage strictly regulated.

Remember, due to the high aflatoxins content in corn, one study from Ghana linked kenkey to cancer.  In explaining this exposition, Agbetiameh et al. article in the graphic. Com, 2018, reported that several aflatoxin surveillance studies detected varying levels of the toxins in maize, groundnuts, and their derivative products. To cite but a few, aflatoxin levels reaching 4,800 parts per billion (ppb; a ppb is akin to one drop of water in an Olympic-size swimming pool) were detected in market samples of maize in Accra. Toxin level in fermented maize dough was found to be up to 289 ppb, Kenkey 51 ppb, groundnut 216 ppb, groundnut paste > 3,200 ppb, and Tom Brown 104 ppb. Indeed, these aflatoxin levels exceeded the safety limit for human consumption.

The Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) sets the threshold at 15 ppb for maize and 20 ppb for groundnuts. Critically, those contamination levels demonstrate that majority of Ghanaians are exposed to unsafe aflatoxin levels in foods (Banku, Kenkey, Akple, Tuo Zaafi, Kooko, Aboolo, groundnut soup, etc.) prepared primarily from such contaminated crop products.

However, Kortei et al.(2021) found that although there was some observed contamination of maize across the different ecological zones, the consumption of maize (white and colored) posed no adverse health effects on the population of Ghana.   An earlier study from Ghana by Agbetiameh et al.(2018) found aflatoxins in maize and called for measures to address them.  In combating this in the Ghanaian space, they introduced aflatoxins products such as Aflasafe GH02 to reduce its level in Ghanaian corn. When properly applied, Aflasafe prevents crop infection and contamination, reducing aflatoxins by between 80 and 100 percent in target crops such as maize, groundnuts, and sorghum.

Corn intolerance

Gluten intolerance or celiac disease is a common condition caused by an auto-immune response to gluten in wheat, rye, and barley. Corn contains proteins known as zein that are related to gluten.

One study by  Kristjánsson et al.(2005) found that corn zein caused an inflammatory reaction in a subgroup of people with celiac disease. However, the reaction to zein was much smaller than that of gluten.  Another study by Ortiz-Sánchez et al.(2013)hypothesized that corn intake may, in rare cases, be the cause of persistent symptoms in some people with celiac disease.  Finally, one study by Capili et al.(2016) found that corn has also been reported to be a symptom trigger in people with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or FODMAP intolerance.

FODMAPs are a category of soluble fiber that is poorly absorbed. High intake can cause digestive upset, such as bloating, gas, and diarrhea, in some people.

Take home

Studies have established consumption of corn improves eye health and longevity. The scientific name of corn Zea mays was derived from the antioxidant in corn called zeaxanthin. For instance, three studies( Abdel-Aal et al. 2013;  Moeller et al. 2000; Carpentier et al. 2009) found that dietary consumption of antioxidants, especially carotenoids like zeaxanthin and lutein, could boost eye health.  Three studies( Kean et al. 2008; Hu et al. 2011; Maiani et al. 2009) found that Lutein and zeaxanthin are the major carotenoids in corn,  which are linked up to about 70% of the total carotenoid content. Three studies(  Bone et al. 1997;  Bone et al. 2000; Whitehead et al. 2006) also note that lutein and zeaxanthin are normally called macular pigments, these compounds exist in our retina, the light-sensitive inner surface of our eye, where they protect against oxidative damage caused by blue light. Additionally, three studies( Karppi et al. 2012; Dherani et al. 2008;  Delcourt et al. 2006) found that high levels of these carotenoids in our blood are strongly linked to a decreased risk of both macular degeneration and cataracts.

Three observational studies( Vu et al. 2006;  Seddon et al. 1994; Cho et al. 2008)found that high dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin may be protective, but not all studies agreed with this proposition. Finally,  one old study by Seddon et al. (1994) in 356 middle-aged and older adults found a 43% reduction in the risk of macular degeneration in those with the highest intake of carotenoids, especially lutein and zeaxanthin, compared to those with the lowest intake. Additionally, for those with eye issues, your diet is traditional natural corn related.  

Lastly, eating corn has been found to extend our life on earth. This is supported by Kwon et al.( 2007) study where the researchers believe there is a need to eat our traditional foods because of a better balance of calories and beneficial nutrients. They note that staple crops like corn and legumes have antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anti-hypertension potential. These foods also provide certain protective phenolic phytochemicals that are beneficial for heart health, reversing hypertension as a natural remedy for high blood pressure, and controlling blood sugar levels.

NB:

Prof. Nyarkotey has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical associations to justify his write-ups. My articles are for educational purposes and do not serve as Medical advice for Treatment. I aim to educate the public about evidence-based scientific Naturopathic Therapies.

The writer is a Professor of Naturopathic Healthcare, President, of Nyarkotey College of Holistic Medicine & Technology (NUCHMT)/African Naturopathic Foundation. E-mail: collegeofholisticmedicine@gmail.com. 

References

  1. Kevin C.Maki , Andrea L. Lawless, Kathleen M.Kelley, Valerie N.Kadena, Constance J.Geiger, Mary R.Dicklin(2015) Corn oil improves the plasma lipoprotein lipid profile compared with extra-virgin olive oil consumption in men and women with elevated cholesterol: Results from a randomized controlled feeding trial. Journal of Clinical Lipidology. Volume 9, Issue 1, January–February 2015, Pages 49-57
  2. Dupont J, White PJ, Carpenter MP, Schaefer EJ, Meydani SN, Elson CE, Woods M, Gorbach SL. Food uses and health effects of corn oil. J Am Coll Nutr. 1990 Oct;9(5):438-70. doi: 10.1080/07315724.1990.10720403. PMID: 2258533.
  3. Davidsson L, Almgren A, Juillerat MA, Hurrell RF. Manganese absorption in humans: the effect of phytic acid and ascorbic acid in soy formula. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 Nov;62(5):984-7. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/62.5.984. PMID: 7572746.
  4. Guasch-Ferré M, Bulló M, Estruch R, Corella D, Martínez-González MA, Ros E, Covas M, Arós F, Gómez-Gracia E, Fiol M, Lapetra J, Muñoz MÁ, Serra-Majem L, Babio N, Pintó X, Lamuela-Raventós RM, Ruiz-Gutiérrez V, Salas-Salvadó J; PREDIMED Study Group. Dietary magnesium intake is inversely associated with mortality in adults at high cardiovascular disease risk. J Nutr. 2014 Jan;144(1):55-60. doi: 10.3945/jn.113.183012. Epub 2013 Nov 20. PMID: 24259558.
  5. Rosanoff A, Weaver CM, Rude RK. Suboptimal magnesium status in the United States: are the health consequences underestimated? Nutr Rev. 2012 Mar;70(3):153-64. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00465.x. Epub 2012 Feb 15. PMID: 22364157.
  6. King JC. Zinc: an essential but elusive nutrient. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011 Aug;94(2):679S-84S. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.005744. Epub 2011 Jun 29. PMID: 21715515; PMCID: PMC3142737.
  7. Schlemmer U, Frølich W, Prieto RM, Grases F. Phytate in foods and significance for humans: food sources, intake, processing, bioavailability, protective role and analysis. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2009 Sep;53 Suppl 2:S330-75. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200900099. PMID: 19774556.
  8. Nath R. Copper deficiency and heart disease: molecular basis, recent advances and current concepts. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 1997 Nov;29(11):1245-54. doi: 10.1016/s1357-2725(97)00060-5. PMID: 9451822.
  9. Grandjean AC, Fulgoni VL 3rd, Reimers KJ, Agarwal S. Popcorn consumption and dietary and physiological parameters of US children and adults: analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2002 dietary survey data. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008 May;108(5):853-6. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2008.02.018. PMID: 18442510.
  10. Liu S, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, Giovannucci E, Rimm E, Manson JE, Hennekens CH, Willett WC. Whole-grain consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: results from the Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999 Sep;70(3):412-9. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/70.3.412. PMID: 10479204
  11. Stender S, Dyerberg J. Influence of trans fatty acids on health. Ann Nutr Metab. 2004;48(2):61-6. doi: 10.1159/000075591. Epub 2003 Dec 16. PMID: 14679314.
  12. Graudal N, Jürgens G, Baslund B, Alderman MH. Compared with usual sodium intake, low- and excessive-sodium diets are associated with increased mortality: a meta-analysis. Am J Hypertens. 2014 Sep;27(9):1129-37. doi: 10.1093/ajh/hpu028. Epub 2014 Mar 20. PMID: 24651634.
  13. Lutsey PL, Steffen LM, Stevens J. Dietary intake and the development of the metabolic syndrome: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Circulation. 2008 Feb 12;117(6):754-61. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.716159. Epub 2008 Jan 22. PMID: 18212291.
  14. Fekete K, Berti C, Trovato M, Lohner S, Dullemeijer C, Souverein OW, Cetin I, Decsi T. Effect of folate intake on health outcomes in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis on birth weight, placental weight and length of gestation. Nutr J. 2012 Sep 19;11:75. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-11-75. PMID: 22992251; PMCID: PMC3499376.
  15. Adom KK, Liu RH. Antioxidant activity of grains. J Agric Food Chem. 2002 Oct 9;50(21):6182-7. doi: 10.1021/jf0205099. PMID: 12358499.
  16. Abdel-Aal el-SM, Akhtar H, Zaheer K, Ali R. Dietary sources of lutein and zeaxanthin carotenoids and their role in eye health. Nutrients. 2013 Apr 9;5(4):1169-85. doi: 10.3390/nu5041169. PMID: 23571649; PMCID: PMC3705341.
  17. Kean EG, Hamaker BR, Ferruzzi MG. Carotenoid bioaccessibility from whole grain and degermed maize meal products. J Agric Food Chem. 2008 Nov 12;56(21):9918-26. doi: 10.1021/jf8018613. Epub 2008 Oct 21. PMID: 18937488.
  18. Schlemmer U, Frølich W, Prieto RM, Grases F. Phytate in foods and significance for humans: food sources, intake, processing, bioavailability, protective role and analysis. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2009 Sep;53 Suppl 2:S330-75. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200900099. PMID: 19774556.
  19. Moeller SM, Jacques PF, Blumberg JB. The potential role of dietary xanthophylls in cataract and age-related macular degeneration. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000 Oct;19(5 Suppl):522S-527S. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2000.10718975. PMID: 11023002.
  20. Carpentier S, Knaus M, Suh M. Associations between lutein, zeaxanthin, and age-related macular degeneration: an overview. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2009 Apr;49(4):313-26. doi: 10.1080/10408390802066979. PMID: 19234943.
  21. Hu QP, Xu JG. Profiles of carotenoids, anthocyanins, phenolics, and antioxidant activity of selected color waxy corn grains during maturation. J Agric Food Chem. 2011 Mar 9;59(5):2026-33. doi: 10.1021/jf104149q. Epub 2011 Feb 7. PMID: 21299221.
  22. Maiani G, Castón MJ, Catasta G, Toti E, Cambrodón IG, Bysted A, Granado-Lorencio F, Olmedilla-Alonso B, Knuthsen P, Valoti M, Böhm V, Mayer-Miebach E, Behsnilian D, Schlemmer U. Carotenoids: actual knowledge on food sources, intakes, stability and bioavailability and their protective role in humans. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2009 Sep;53 Suppl 2:S194-218. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200800053. PMID: 19035552.
  23. Bone RA, Landrum JT, Friedes LM, Gomez CM, Kilburn MD, Menendez E, Vidal I, Wang W. Distribution of lutein and zeaxanthin stereoisomers in the human retina. Exp Eye Res. 1997 Feb;64(2):211-8. doi: 10.1006/exer.1996.0210. PMID: 9176055.
  24. Bone RA, Landrum JT, Dixon Z, Chen Y, Llerena CM. Lutein and zeaxanthin in the eyes, serum and diet of human subjects. Exp Eye Res. 2000 Sep;71(3):239-45. doi: 10.1006/exer.2000.0870. PMID: 10973733.
  25. Whiteead AJ, Mares JA, Danis RP. Macular pigment: a review of current knowledge. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006 Jul;124(7):1038-45. doi: 10.1001/archopht.124.7.1038. PMID: 16832030.
  26. Karppi J, Laukkanen JA, Kurl S. Plasma lutein and zeaxanthin and the risk of age-related nuclear cataract among the elderly Finnish population. Br J Nutr. 2012 Jul 14;108(1):148-54. doi: 10.1017/S0007114511005332. Epub 2011 Oct 18. PMID: 22005336.
  27. Dherani M, Murthy GV, Gupta SK, Young IS, Maraini G, Camparini M, Price GM, John N, Chakravarthy U, Fletcher AE. Blood levels of vitamin C, carotenoids and retinol are inversely associated with cataract in a North Indian population. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008 Aug;49(8):3328-35. doi: 10.1167/iovs.07-1202. Epub 2008 Apr 17. PMID: 18421094.
  28. Delcourt C, Carrière I, Delage M, Barberger-Gateau P, Schalch W; POLA Study Group. Plasma lutein and zeaxanthin and other carotenoids as modifiable risk factors for age-related maculopathy and cataract: the POLA Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006 Jun;47(6):2329-35. doi: 10.1167/iovs.05-1235. PMID: 16723441.
  29. Vu HT, Robman L, Hodge A, McCarty CA, Taylor HR. Lutein and zeaxanthin and the risk of cataract: the Melbourne visual impairment project. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006 Sep;47(9):3783-6. doi: 10.1167/iovs.05-0587. PMID: 16936087.
  30. Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto RD, Hiller R, Blair N, Burton TC, Farber MD, Gragoudas ES, Haller J, Miller DT, et al. Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration. Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. JAMA. 1994 Nov 9;272(18):1413-20. Erratum in: JAMA 1995 Feb 22;273(8):622. PMID: 7933422.
  31. Cho E, Hankinson SE, Rosner B, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Prospective study of lutein/zeaxanthin intake and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Jun;87(6):1837-43. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/87.6.1837. PMID: 18541575; PMCID: PMC2504741.
  32. Strate LL, Liu YL, Syngal S, Aldoori WH, Giovannucci EL. Nut, corn, and popcorn consumption and the incidence of diverticular disease. JAMA. 2008 Aug 27;300(8):907-14. doi: 10.1001/jama.300.8.907. PMID: 18728264; PMCID: PMC2643269.
  33. Tay J, Luscombe-Marsh ND, Thompson CH, Noakes M, Buckley JD, Wittert GA, Yancy WS Jr, Brinkworth GD. Comparison of low- and high-carbohydrate diets for type 2 diabetes management: a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015 Oct;102(4):780-90. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.115.112581. Epub 2015 Jul 29. PMID: 26224300.
  34. Goran MI, Ulijaszek SJ, Ventura EE. High fructose corn syrup and diabetes prevalence: a global perspective. Glob Public Health. 2013;8(1):55-64. doi: 10.1080/17441692.2012.736257. Epub 2012 Nov 27. PMID: 23181629.
  35. Bertoia ML, Mukamal KJ, Cahill LE, Hou T, Ludwig DS, Mozaffarian D, Willett WC, Hu FB, Rimm EB. Changes in Intake of Fruits and Vegetables and Weight Change in United States Men and Women Followed for Up to 24 Years: Analysis from Three Prospective Cohort Studies. PLoS Med. 2015 Sep 22;12(9):e1001878. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001878. Erratum in: PLoS Med. 2016 Jan;13(1):e1001956. PMID: 26394033; PMCID: PMC4578962.
  36. Eli-Cophie D, Agbenorhevi JK, Annan RA. Glycemic index of some local staples in Ghana. Food Sci Nutr. 2016 Apr 18;5(1):131-138. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.372. PMID: 28070324; PMCID: PMC5217928.
  37. Centeno C, Viveros A, Brenes A, Canales R, Lozano A, de la Cuadra C. Effect of several germination conditions on total P, phytate P, phytase, and acid phosphatase activities and inositol phosphate esters in rye and barley. J Agric Food Chem. 2001 Jul;49(7):3208-15. doi: 10.1021/jf010023c. PMID: 11453753.
  38. Leenhardt F, Levrat-Verny MA, Chanliaud E, Rémésy C. Moderate decrease of pH by sourdough fermentation is sufficient to reduce phytate content of whole wheat flour through endogenous phytase activity. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Jan 12;53(1):98-102. doi: 10.1021/jf049193q. PMID: 15631515.

Bennett JW, Klich M. Mycotoxins. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2003 Jul;16(3):497-516. doi: 10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003. PMID: 12857779; PMCID: PMC164220.

  • Woloshuk CP, Shim WB. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, and trichothecenes: a convergence of knowledge. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2013 Jan;37(1):94-109. doi: 10.1111/1574-6976.12009. Epub 2012 Nov 20. PMID: 23078349.
  • Kortei, N.K., Annan, T., Akonor, P.T. et al. The occurrence of aflatoxins and human health risk estimations in randomly obtained maize from some markets in Ghana. Sci Rep 11, 4295 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-83751-7
  • Agbetiameh D, Ortega-Beltran A, Awuah RT, Atehnkeng J, Cotty PJ, Bandyopadhyay R. Prevalence of Aflatoxin Contamination in Maize and Groundnut in Ghana: Population Structure, Distribution, and Toxigenicity of the Causal Agents. Plant Dis. 2018 Apr;102(4):764-772. doi: 10.1094/PDIS-05-17-0749-RE. Epub 2018 Feb 13. PMID: 30673407; PMCID: PMC7779968.
  • Wang LD, Yang HH, Fan ZM, Lü XD, Wang JK, Liu XL, Sun Z, Jiang YN, He X, Zhou Q. Cytological screening and 15 years’ follow-up (1986-2001) for early esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and precancerous lesions in a high-risk population in Anyang County, Henan Province, Northern China. Cancer Detect Prev. 2005;29(4):317-22. doi: 10.1016/j.cdp.2005.06.004. PMID: 16118042.
  • Missmer SA, Suarez L, Felkner M, Wang E, Merrill AH Jr, Rothman KJ, Hendricks KA. Exposure to fumonisins and the occurrence of neural tube defects along the Texas-Mexico border. Environ Health Perspect. 2006 Feb;114(2):237-41. doi: 10.1289/ehp.8221. PMID: 16451860; PMCID: PMC1367837.
  • Gelineau-van Waes J, Starr L, Maddox J, Aleman F, Voss KA, Wilberding J, Riley RT. Maternal fumonisin exposure and risk for neural tube defects: mechanisms in an in vivo mouse model. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2005 Jul;73(7):487-97. doi: 10.1002/bdra.20148. PMID: 15959874.
  • Gelineau-van Waes J, Voss KA, Stevens VL, Speer MC, Riley RT. Maternal fumonisin exposure as a risk factor for neural tube defects. Adv Food Nutr Res. 2009;56:145-81. doi: 10.1016/S1043-4526(08)00605-0. PMID: 19389609.
  • Van Rensburg SJ, Bradshaw ES, Bradshaw D, Rose EF. Oesophageal cancer in Zulu men, South Africa: a case-control study. Br J Cancer. 1985 Mar;51(3):399-405. doi: 10.1038/bjc.1985.54. PMID: 3970816; PMCID: PMC1976950.
  • Lewis L, Onsongo M, Njapau H, Schurz-Rogers H, Luber G, Kieszak S, Nyamongo J, Backer L, Dahiye AM, Misore A, DeCock K, Rubin C; Kenya Aflatoxicosis Investigation Group. Aflatoxin contamination of commercial maize products during an outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis in eastern and central Kenya. Environ Health Perspect. 2005 Dec;113(12):1763-7. doi: 10.1289/ehp.7998. PMID: 16330360; PMCID: PMC1314917.
  • Kristjánsson G, Högman M, Venge P, Hällgren R. Gut mucosal granulocyte activation precedes nitric oxide production: studies in coeliac patients challenged with gluten and corn. Gut. 2005 Jun;54(6):769-74. doi: 10.1136/gut.2004.057174. PMID: 15888782; PMCID: PMC1774524.
  • Ortiz-Sánchez JP, Cabrera-Chávez F, de la Barca AM. Maize prolamins could induce a gluten-like cellular immune response in some celiac disease patients. Nutrients. 2013 Oct 21;5(1):4174-83. doi: 10.3390/nu5104174. PMID: 24152750; PMCID: PMC3820067.
  • Capili B, Anastasi JK, Chang M. Addressing the Role of Food in Irritable Bowel Syndrome Symptom Management. J Nurse Pract. 2016 May;12(5):324-329. doi: 10.1016/j.nurpra.2015.12.007. PMID: 27429601; PMCID: PMC4944381.
  • Jacobs DO. Clinical practice. Diverticulitis. N Engl J Med. 2007 Nov 15;357(20):2057-66. doi: 10.1056/NEJMcp073228. PMID: 18003962.
  • Kwon YI, Apostolidis E, Kim YC, Shetty K. Health benefits of traditional corn, beans, and pumpkin: in vitro studies for hyperglycemia and hypertension management. J Med Food. 2007 Jun;10(2):266-75. doi: 10.1089/jmf.2006.234. PMID: 17651062.
  • Priebe MG, van Binsbergen JJ, de Vos R, Vonk RJ. Whole grain foods for the prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008 Jan 23;(1):CD006061. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006061.pub2. PMID: 18254091.
  • Klevay LM. Cardiovascular disease from copper deficiency–a history. J Nutr. 2000 Feb;130(2S Suppl):489S-492S. doi: 10.1093/jn/130.2.489S. PMID: 10721936.
  • Emily T. Nuss,Sherry A. Tanumihardjo(2010) Maize: A Paramount Staple Crop in the Context of Global Nutrition. Comprehensive Reviews
  • D. Panzeri, Via Celoria, V. Cesari,I. Toschi &R. Pilu( 2009) Seed Calorific Value in Different Maize Genotypes. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects . Volume 33, 2011 – Issue 18.
  • Guo X, Yuan L, Chen H, Sato SJ, Clemente TE, Holding DR. Nonredundant function of zeins and their correct stoichiometric ratio drive protein body formation in maize endosperm. Plant Physiol. 2013 Jul;162(3):1359-69. doi: 10.1104/pp.113.218941. Epub 2013 May 15. PMID: 23677936; PMCID: PMC3707540.
  • John W. Lawton (2013) Zein: A History of Processing and Use. Cereal Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM.2002.79.1.1
  • Jellum MD. Plant introductions of maize as a source of oil with unusual fatty acid composition. J Agric Food Chem. 1970 May-Jun;18(3):365-70. doi: 10.1021/jf60169a032. PMID: 5487087
  • Lattimer JM, Haub MD. Effects of dietary fiber and its components on metabolic health. Nutrients. 2010 Dec;2(12):1266-89. doi: 10.3390/nu2121266. Epub 2010 Dec 15. PMID: 22254008; PMCID: PMC3257631.
  • Anderson JW, Baird P, Davis RH Jr, Ferreri S, Knudtson M, Koraym A, Waters V, Williams CL. Health benefits of dietary fiber. Nutr Rev. 2009 Apr;67(4):188-205. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00189.x. PMID: 19335713.
  • Park J, Floch MH. Prebiotics, probiotics, and dietary fiber in gastrointestinal disease. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2007 Mar;36(1):47-63, v. doi: 10.1016/j.gtc.2007.03.001. PMID: 17472874.
  • Li G, Liu W, Wang Y, Jia F, Wang Y, Ma Y, Gu R, Lu J. Functions and Applications of Bioactive Peptides From Corn Gluten Meal. Adv Food Nutr Res. 2019;87:1-41. doi: 10.1016/bs.afnr.2018.07.001. Epub 2018 Aug 31. PMID: 30678813.
  • Goncalves MD, Lu C, Tutnauer J, Hartman TE, Hwang SK, Murphy CJ, Pauli C, Morris R, Taylor S, Bosch K, Yang S, Wang Y, Van Riper J, Lekaye HC, Roper J, Kim Y, Chen Q, Gross SS, Rhee KY, Cantley LC, Yun J. High-fructose corn syrup enhances intestinal tumor growth in mice. Science. 2019 Mar 22;363(6433):1345-1349. doi: 10.1126/science.aat8515. PMID: 30898933; PMCID: PMC6487857.
  • Jillian Levy, (2019) Is Corn Healthy? Surprising Facts About Its Nutrition, Benefits & Side Effects. https://draxe.com/nutrition/nutritional-value-of-corn/
Post Views: 1,642

Related Posts